Εγκυκλοπαίδεια Μείζονος Ελληνισμού, Εύξεινος Πόντος

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Metallurgy and Metals in the Black Sea Area (Antiquity)

Συγγραφή : Treister Mikhail , (proofread.) Lees Christopher (21/1/2008)

Για παραπομπή: Treister Mikhail, (proofread.) Lees Christopher, "Metallurgy and Metals in the Black Sea Area (Antiquity)", 2008,
Εγκυκλοπαίδεια Μείζονος Ελληνισμού, Εύξεινος Πόντος
URL: <http://www.ehw.gr/l.aspx?id=10784>
Metallurgy and Metals in the Black Sea Area (Antiquity) (26/6/2009 v.1) Μέταλλα και Μεταλλουργία στην περιοχή του Εύξεινου Πόντου (1/12/2011 v.1) 
 

1. Sources of metals

1.1. Mines

In historical and archaeological literature various mines in the Balkans, Asia Minor and the Caucasus are usually considered as the source of copper, lead, silver and gold used in metalworking by the Greeks settled around the Black Sea. At the same time, iron sources were supposed to be of local origin. Most of these hypotheses are, however, based on the modern geology of those areas or on speculations about the possibility of the exploitation of certain ore sources.1Moreover, the geographic proximity of the mines does not necessarily mean that they were used in Antiquity. Given the scope of the international trade in metals in Antiquity, as it is reflected in the finds of ingots in shipwrecks, one might suggest that it was influenced by political events, changing spheres of interest, or trade treaties. Therefore, the sources of metals were not the same in various periods.2 This is also proved by analytical studies of metal objects. For example, the investigation of lead samples from various sites in Thrace, including the Thasian emporion in inner Thrace, Pistiros, has shown that the source of lead could be anywhere in the Balkan Peninsula – from Laurion to Chalkidiki to the Rhodope mountains. The results indicate that Thrace did not utilize one single lead source but lead was provided according to availability from different production centers.3Archaeometallurgical studies reveal the following picture: in the Central Strandzha mines, besides early material dating to the Eneolithic period and the Bronze Age, Thracian pottery of the 5th – 3rd centuries BC and Hellenistic material were found.4 The settlements located near the mines are dated either to the 4th – 2nd millennia BC or to the Hellenistic or Early Medieval periods.5 Also dated to the Hellenistic period are the copper ingots found in the sea near Achtopolis.6 The study of slag heaps near Koprivlen at the foot of the Pirin Mountains in southwestern Bulgaria and the neighbouring settlements suggests the local mining of iron ores and metallurgy from the 7th century BC to the Late Hellenistic period.7Other metal sources could have been the mines of northwestern Anatolia, first of all on the Biga Peninsula, with the huge heaps of copper slag and fragments of Hellenistic and Late Roman pottery.8 The richest lead-silver mine, Balya Maden, in the area of ancient Pericharaxis, as well as some other lead-silver mines on the peninsula, such as Güre, yielded numerous archaeological remains dating to the Hellenistic period and the first centuries AD.9 The important gold mines at Astyra in the Troad, which were already exhausted by the time of Strabo (13. 1, 23) were undoubtedly exploited in the Classical and Hellenistic periods, given the finds of pottery and C-14 analysis of charcoal found in one of the mines.10

1.2. Evidence on sites

1.2.1. Iron

A. S. Ostroverkhov, analyzing the remains of smithies in the Dnieper-Bug estuaries, came to the following conclusion. The iron ores found in the Yagorlyk settlement are magnetitic quartzite, deposits of which are located in the Krivoj Rog basin and in Korsak-Mogila in northern Taurid. The finds are shaped as rectangular bars, which according to A. S. Ostroverkhov, prove that raw materials were specially prepared for long-distance transportation.11 Ostroverkhov also considers that the complexes associated with iron processing found on the island of Berezan were intended for the enrichment of the hematite sands of the Dnieper and Bug rivers from the crystalline massif of the mainland.12 Later on, A. S. Ostroverkhov's hypotheses came under criticism, so at present the question of whether iron ore was locally extracted at the Yagorlyk settlement is still open.13

Mineralogical study of samples of iron ore and slag from excavations of the 6th- 5th centuries BC layers at Thorikos near Novorossiisk in the north Pontic region has shown that the ores belong to sedimentary layers of a Cimmerian date and that their chemical composition is close to that of the Kerch iron ores, although their texture is different. This may argue in favour of considering the western coast of the Caucasus as the source of ore found in Thorikos.14 Examples of local Kerch ore have been found several times during excavations of the late 6th – 5th century B.C. metalworking shops at Pantikapaion.15 Special studies of slag from the 1st century AD debris in Pantikapaion testify that iron smiths used local Kerch ores.16

Metallographic study of iron bars and objects from the 2nd-3rd century Gorgippia suggests that the local iron-working was based not on the supplies of local ore, but rather on imported semi-manufatured bars ready for further procession. L. S. Rozanova and N. N. Terekhova maintain that this feature may be applied in general to the iron-working in the north Pontic area in Antiquity.17

1.2.2. Copper

It has been suggested that the source of copper for the metalworking in the northwestern Pontic area were the ores of the Carpat Mountains and the Balkans.18 However, recent studies of bronze slag from different layers in Olbia has shown that most probably the local bronze-working was based on the polymetallic ores from north Anatolia.19 The study of the metal composition of Olbian coins allows us to pinpoint the metal's source for the various chronological periods. The high admixtures of nickel and cobalt in the metal of Archaic arrow-shaped coins suggest the use of copper and polymetallic ores of west Pontic origin, exploited in the Strandzha mines in the proximity of Apollonia Pontica.20 The same admixtures characterize the metal of a copper ingot found in the earliest copper-smelting furnaces of Borysthenes on the island of Berezen.21 The variations of admixtures in the coins' metal allow us to suggest a change of ore sources during the early 5th century BC, perhaps to the sources in western or nothern Thrace.22 Finally, unusualy high admixtures of zinc, which may reflect a characteristic of local ores, are detected in the metal of coins struck in the early 4th century BC.23 T. N. Smekalova and Yu. L. Dyukov maintain that possible sources for this coinage could be the ores of the north Thracian and Strandzha mines, although they do not exclude the possibility that they could have been also the rich in zinc ores of Baluya Maden in the northwest Asia Minor.24 Thus, in course of one and a half century the sources of copper for the Olbian coinage has changed four times and a similar picture can be also seen in later periods of Olbian coinage.25

1.2.3. Silver

The study of the metal composition of Bosporan silver coins reflects a change of silver sources about 480-470 BC.26 High admixtures of gold may indicate Thraco-Macedonian, Siphnian or Asian Minor silver sources for the earliest silver coins of the Cimmerian Bosporus, while a rather low content of gold for coins minted since the second quarter of the 5th century BC may indicate the Laurion mines as being the source of silver.27

2. Metallurgy and Metallworking

2.1. Archaic

2.1.1. Remains of metallurgical and metalworking shops

Early workshops and production remains, including iron and bronze smelting furnaces, were unearthed in the Greek settlements of the Lower Dnestr area (Nikonion28 and the settlement of its chora: Belyaevka I)29 at Borysthenes on the island of Berezan,30at Olbia31 and in the settlements of the Olbian chora (Bol’shaya Chernomorka 2; Kozyrka XV),32 in the Yagorlyk settlement,33 at Mirmekion,34 Pantikapaion,35 Phanagoria,36 and Thorikos.37

One of the most important metallurgical and metalworking regions was established in the late 6th – early 5th century BC in the Lower Bug area38 – it is noteworthy that in the Yagorlyk settlement the processing of iron and copper ores and manufacture of bronze arrowheads and ornaments went side by side with glass manufacture.39 Two copper-smelting workshops with the remains of ovens, pits and reservoirs cut in the bedrock, as well as thick layers of waste, copper splashs and ingots of arsenical bronze and pure copper were unearthed in the dug-outs of Borysthenes, dated to the late 7th – first half of the 6th century BC.40 It is believed that the volume of metal production in these workshops exceeded the needs of the relatively small colony and was therefore partly exported.41 Two reservoirs for primary processing of iron ore excavated at the settlement are dated to the same period.42 Noteworthy are also the recent finds of late 6th – early 5th century BC iron workshops, including one with a furnace and a pit with production debris in the sacral area of the Berezan settlement.43 Remains of a bronze-casting or jewellery workshop were also unearthed there.44 Besides these, a hoard was also found which contained gold items and electrum coins of Erythrae or Miletus and was probably hidden by a jeweller in the early 6th century BC.45 In Olbia the earliest remains of bronze-working are dated already to the third quarter of the 6th century BC.46 One of the debris layers, dated to the last quarter of the 6th century BC, contained slag, crucibles, bellow nozzles, semi-finished coins, arrowheads, as well as a mould fragment for casting arrowheads.47

Especially well studied are the remains of four metal workshops in Pantikapaion, where they were concentrated in the two areas: on the northern slope of the Mithridates Mound and on the Western plateau. Objects of iron, bronze and lead were produced and furnished with ivory and bone parts. All artefacts were completely manufactured at one place. On the northern slope of the Mithridates mount the three excavated workshops were located close to each other in rather small houses on both sides of a narrow by-street, forming a metalworking quarter.48

Remains of the production of bronze sculpture (probably a crucible-furnace) were found in Phanagoria in a late 6th-early 5th century BC context: house No. 6 yielded remains of an oven with bronze slag, crucibles and bronze ingots, as well as a fragmentary clay mould for the hand of a statue.49

2.1.2 Casting moulds, matrices, punches

Casting moulds are numerous and well represented by the finds from Histria,50 Berezan,51 Olbia52 and its chora,53 and Pantikapaion.54 Many of the casting moulds from the northwestern and north Pontic areas were also used for casting lead spindle whorls shaped as truncated cones and decorated with vertical ridges (e.g. moulds from Histria,55 Kozyrka XV,56 Olbia,57 Kerkinitis58 and Pantikapaion).59 Identical objects were made in a mould found at the acropolis of Camiros on Rhodes.60

A unique schist mould from Olbia61 with such a design was reworked from a matrix with the inscription ΙΚΕΣΙΟΕΙΜΙ, which undoubtedly belonged to a crafstman called Hikesios. The name Hikesios was spread mainly in the western coast of Asia Minor, primarily in Ionia, as well as more rarely in Lycia, Phrygia, Lydia and Pontos. The Olbian find is the only example of a metalworker’s tool with his signature and self-portrait, not only in the Archaic north Pontic area, but also in the Greek world, suggesting that Olbia was visited by prominent metal artists. Whether they stayed there for a long period or went to work for a certain commission is a matter of discussion, however, the fact, that the broken matrix was not simply thrown away, but reused by a bronzeworker rather presupposes: 1) a tradition in metalworking, when a prominent master, who came to the North Pontic area and founded a workshop, which was inherited by a craftsmen working for the simple local needs; 2) a general character of the workshop – manufacture of items both hammered in precious metals and cast in bronze and lead. These suggestions correlate well with our conclusions concerning the local Olbian creation of specific types of Late Archaic bronze mirrors and give the ground to consider Olbia as one of the regional centres of metalworking, the creation and development of which was probably affected by itinerant metalworkers from the Greek Mainland and Western Asia Minor, one of which, Hikesios by name, left us his self-portrait.62

A limestone matrix for stamping small plaques in the shape of heads of a bird of prey, have been found in an early 5th century BC layer in Olbia.63 A comparable motif could have been hammered with a 5th century BC bronze punch found at Pîrjoaia in the Lower Danube.64

Separate finds of bronze punches in a late 6th century BC context originate from the island of Berezan.65 It is quite possible that one of the stamps from Berezan was used for the manufacture of objects made of precious metals, possibly appliqués attached to the walls of phialaimesomphaloi or the terminals of necklaces, while another – for a pendant and a necklace bead in one piece.The punches show that the traditions of jewellery production in Lydia and northern Ionia had been developed further in North Pontic (Berezan)66 and Thracian67 toreutics.


2.2 Classical
2.2.1. Remains of metallurgical and metalworking shops

In Mesembria Pontica remains of a 5th century BC workshop were found with two bronze-smelting furnaces.68 Excavations of layers, dating to the 5th – 4th centuries BC in Nikonion, yielded separate finds of slag, crucibles and casting moulds.69 Rather numerous remains of bronze and iron workshops, dating to the 5th century BC, primarily to its first half, were unearthed in different quarters of Olbia, mainly in the central part of the Upper town and in the area of the Central Temenos. These include furnaces, hearths, and production debris with iron and bronze slag, and crucibles. One of the workshops excavated in the Upper town had at least four furnaces.70 Another workshop, dated from the late 5th to the third quarter of the 4th century BC, in the south-eastern part of the city, and located in a house with two rooms, was most probably specialized in the manufacture of small lead votives given the finds of numerous lead plates and a mould for casting votive figurines of Hermes and Aphrodite; This suggests that the workshop was located nearby the sanctuary of Aphrodite.71

Pantikapaion yielded remains of debris from a metal workshop, dating to the first – second third of the 4th century BC and including both finished objects and waste material, among them numerous pumice stones and horns, showing traces of contact with corroded iron and bronze,72 and remains of a bronze life-size statue production including fragments of a mould, a fragmentary conical funnel, slag, and an inlaid stone eye, all dated to the second half of the 4th century BC.73 In Phanagoria, slag and cuirass plates were found in the debris from a metal workshop dated to the second quarter of the 5th century BC.74 Remains of workshops are unknown from the settlements of the Bosporan chora except for the workshop on the South Churubash settlement on the chora of Nymphaion, dated to the second half of the 4th century BC, with a room of ca. 40 square meters, where a furnace and an iron anvil were found.75

2.2.2. Casting moulds, matrices, punches

Casting moulds for jewellery, nails, and arrowheads were found in Olbia,76 while moulds for jewellery in Histria,77Nikonion,78 and Nymphaion.79 It is worth noting, that similar spiral-shaped pendants were cast in the moulds from Histria and Nymphaion, while lyra-shaped pendants in the moulds found in Histria and Nikonion, suggesting common trends in North Pontic bronze working.

Another group of matrices, made of stone, and with hollow designs, includes a piece for embossing plaques in the shape of a wild boar’s head and rosettes, found at the Kosharskoe settlement.It has parallels with plaques from the 5th century BC Scythian burials.80 Designs for similar plaques are seen on a casting mould from excavations on the island of Berezan - the craftsmen only marked the surface, but did not carve the openings for the plaques in the shape of wild boar mauls.81 Remarkable is a matrix found by chance in Nymphaion, representing a winged, horned lioness (or "lioness-griffin").82

2.3. Hellenistic

2.3.1. Remains of metallurgical and metalworking shops

Remains of a metal workshop, dating to the 3rd-2nd century BC, were unearthed in the extra mural metalworking centre east of the Thasian emporion of Pistiros in Bulgaria: finds include a jeweller's hammer,83 a gold nugget, various moulds, and two punches. Only one working edge from one of the tools is preserved. It is rectangular with an incised pattern in the shape of a lyre.84 The tools were published as matrices, however their shape and the position of the device suggest they are punches.85 Other areas of Pistiros yielded finds of emimanufactured fibulae and large quantities of iron slag.86 In the cities of the North Pontic area, scarse remains of metal workshops were found. Tyras, yielded crucibles and bronzesmelting slag;87 Olbia very fragmentary finds of production remains in the north-western and central parts of the Upper town;88 Tanais some crucibles and bronzesmelting slag.89 In the central part of Gorgippia, in House 68, dated to the mid-4th – mid-3rd centuries BC, debris of bronzeworking was found, including numerous bronze plates, pieces of wire, cramps etc.90

At Vani (Colchis) we have evidence for local bronze statue casting of the Late Hellenistic period, including an oval pit, probably associated with its casting.91 The fact that Greek sculptors were commissioning bronze statues also in the capital of the Late Scythian Kingdom in the Crimea is proved by the finds of inscribed statue bases with holes for fixing the bronze statues.92

The scarse remains of metal workshops in the Hellenistic period, sometimes provoking conclusions of the decline of production contrast with the much more numerous, than in the previous period, finds of casting moulds and matrices (see below). At the same time, it is suggested that due to the specialisation of the craft and certain anti-fire regulations, metalworkers settled in quarters outside the centre of the cities and close to the city walls,93 which seems to be confirmed by the remains of extra mural metalworking at Pistiros, or that the metalworking in that period could have had a household character.94

2.3.2. Casting moulds, punches and matrices

In contrast to the moulds of the previous periods, the Hellenistic casting moulds were often carved not in stone – but in the amphora handles or tiles: especially big quantity of casting moulds, dated to the period discussed, primarily for jewellery, originate from Olbia,95 for instance, those for casting of earrings in ring shape with the terminals in the form of animal heads96 or those with the shields in the form of a five-column temple façade, with pendants.97 Casting moulds for jewellery were found also in Chersonesos,98 Pantikapaion,99 Myrmekion,100 Phanagoria,101 and Tanais.102

A punch from Ruen, Burgas in Thrace with an amphora design used for embossing halves of amphora-shaped pendants is dated to the High Hellenistic period.103A punch from Tyritake, dated to the 3rd-2nd century BC, was used for hammering plaques with Aphrodite and Erotes.104 Four punches for embossing small circular plaques originate from Pantikapaion. One was probably used for stamping plaques with acanthus flowers, another for appliqués with shell design.105

In Chersonesos a 3rd century BC clay mould was found for casting matrices used for hammering mirror reliefs with images of Herakles and Omphale.106A limestone matrix (not a mould as it is published) with a male head in profile was found in a 3rd - 2nd century BC house in Chersonesos.107A 2nd century BC stone matrix with a negative design from Pantikapaion108 was probably used to manufacture gold foil overlays of the calathos type.

2.4. First Centuries AD

2.4.1. Remains of metallurgical and metalworking shops

Two iron smelting furnaces close one to another were unearthed in Tyras.109 In Olbia remains of iron and bronze workshops, dated to the 1st – 3rd centuries AD were unearthed in two areas: on the lower terrace in the south-eastern part of the citadel (they are represented by the small houses with furnaces built between the terrace and defensive walls) and in the Lower town, also with small one-room houses.110 Most of the metal workshop remains of the late 3rd and 4th century AD, including a workshop with furnace remains, concentrate in the territory of the former citadel.111 Separate finds of production remains originate also from the settlements of the Olbian chora (Kozyrka, Petuchovka).112 In Chersonesos there are separate finds of iron blooms and slag, bronze slag, ingots and crucibles; remains of a smith's workshop were excavated in the north-western part of the town.113 The finds associated with iron and bronze metallurgy and metalworking were found in separate areas suggesting a specialisation of workshops.114 Two metalworking debris concentrations were found in the first centuries AD layers in Pantikapaion. There are also known finds of crucibles and nozzles of bellows. Bronze and iron smelting slag, crucibles, fragmentary bronze and iron objects, including nails and rings for chain-armour, as well as animal bones and horns with signs of sawing were found in the debris dated to the first half of the 3rd century AD.115 A crucible for melting bronze originates from Iluraton,116 whereas а spoon for pouring metal comes from the rural settlement of Andreevka South.117

In Tanais remains of metal workshops with finds of crucibles, slag, chisels, tongs, whetstones, аs well as semifinished bronze fibulae of various types were found in layers dated to the 2nd – 3rd centuries AD. The workshops are located in various parts of the city; in its western part debris of a 4th century workshop was also found .118

In Gorgippia, in House 5, which was destroyed in ca. 240 AD, 16 rectangular iron bars were found.119 It is worth noting that the metal had underwent processing by a craftsman of not high skill. The house, where the bars were found, is identified as a merchant's house. The metallographical analysis of some iron artefacts from Gorgippia has shown that their metal was identical to that of the aforementioned bars, supposedly manufactured not on site, but imported from elsewhere as the local manufacture of iron objects in Gorgippia may be characterized as a developed branch of production using advanced technological patterns, such as welding-in and welding-on for fixing steel working edges upon iron base of the artefacts.120

2.4.2. Casting moulds, punches and matrices

Stone and clay casting moulds for ornaments and vessel attachments were found in Augusta Traiana and in the mound no. 1 near Chatalka.121 Casting moulds for jewellery were found at Tyras.122 Five casting moulds used for the manufacture of pendants, parts of buckles and mirror-pendants were found in Tanais in layers dated to the 2nd – 3rd centuries AD.123

A punch from Gorgippia was used for hammering plaques with the busts of Aphrodite and Eros and a sceptre in high relief.124 Its style dates it to the 1st-2nd centuries AD, when numerous gold and silver plaques with similar motifs were in use in Gorgippia and elsewhere in the North Pontic area.

A bronze rectangular matrix with hollow design for embossing cuirass pteryges is said to be from Kerch.125 Clay moulds for casting bronze matrices, dated to the 2nd – 3rd centuries AD, were found in Montana (Moesia) and Chersonesos. According to L. Ognenova-Marinova, the Montana finds belonged to a workshop situated by the sanctuary, though not wholly depended on it, because its activity was not limited to the manufacture of votives.126 Moulds for casting matrices for bronze mirrors of Provincial-Roman types, dated to the first half or the middle of the 2nd century AD, were found in Chersonesos, most probably in the context of a sanctuary.127 A bronze matrix with the figure of Dionysos in aedicule in relief, found in the necropolis of Chersonesos has close parallels among the finds from Thrace or Moesia, dated to the 2nd – 3rd centuries AD and was probably brought to Chersonesos by a craftsman of Danubian or Asia Minor origin.128 The tools of the bronzeworkers and toreutes were found in the hinterland not only in the West Pontic area, but also in Crimea, where a bronze matrix in secondary use was found in a late Scythian burial of Ust-Alma necropolis.129

1. See, e.g.: Кадеев, В. И. Очерки истории экономики Херсонеса в I – IV веках н.э. (Харьков 1970) p. 28-30; 40-43; Шелов, Д. Б. “Железоделательное производство в Северном Причерноморье в античное время”, КСИА 159 (1979) p. 4-5.

2. Treister, M. Y. Trade in Metals in the Greek World (from the Archaic into the Hellenistic Epoch)", Bull. of the Metals Museum 18 (1992), p. 29-43; Treister, M. Y. The Role of Metals in Ancient Greek History (Leiden, New York, Köln 1996) p. 388-391.

3. Kuleff, I. – Iliev, I. – Pernicka, E. – Gergova, D. “Chemical and lead isotope compositions of lead artefacts from ancient Thracia (Bulgaria)”, Journal of Cultural Heritage 7.4 (2006), p. 244-256.

4. Теоклиева, Е. – Балабанов, П. “Рудни разработки в централния Странджа”, Известия на музеите от Югоизточна България IV (1981), p. 18-22.

5. Радунчева, A. – Черных, E. Н. “Археологические материалы с древних рудников”, in E. Н. Черных, Горное дело и металлургия в древнейшей Болгарии (София 1978), Appendix 2, p. 322-325. See in general on mining in ancient Thrace also: Велков, В. “Рудодобиване и минно дело в древна Тракия ”, Годишник на национальная политихнически музей 2 (1972), p. 23-40. See, on the history of mining in Thrace on the basis of epigraphical sources: Геров, Б. “Към выпроса за исползуването на мините в Тракия през римско время”, Известия на Народния музей Бургас 2 (1965), p. 63-74.

6. Velkov, V. “Pontic Thrace and its Interrelations with the Greek World in the XIIth – IVth Centuries”, in O. Лордкипанидзе (ed.), Местные этно-политические объединения Причерноморья в VII-IV вв. дo н.э. Материалы IV Всесоюзного симпозиума по древней истории Причерноморья (Тбилиси 1988), p. 271.

7. Kovachev, V. – Ajdanlijsky, G. – Bozkova, A. – Delev, P. – Mladenov, V. “Traces of Ancient Mining and Metallurgy on a Site in the Mesta (Nestos) River Valley, SW Bulgaria”, in International Conference ‘Archaeometallurgy in Europe’, 24-26 September 2003 - Milan, Italy. Proceedings. Vol. 2 (Milan 2003) p. 429-436.

8. Pernicka, E. “Erzlagerstätten in der Ägäis und ihre Ausbeutung im Altertum: Geochemische Untersuchungen zur Herkunftsbestimmung archäologischer Metallobjekte”, JbRGZM 34.2 (1987), p. 666.

9. Pernicka, E., Seeliger, Th., Wagner, G. A. et al. “Archäometallurgische Untersuchungen in Nordwestanatolien”, JbRGZM 31 (1984), p. 539-549, TG 18, esp. 544-549, figs. 7-10; TG 130A; Pernicka, E. “Erzlagerstätten in der Ägäis und ihre Ausbeutung im Altertum: Geochemische Untersuchungen zur Herkunftsbestimmung archäologischer Metallobjekte”, JbRGZM 34.2 (1987), p. 649.

10. Pernicka, E. – Seeliger, Th. – Wagner, G. A. et al. “Archäometallurgische Untersuchungen in Nordwestanatolien”, JbRGZM 31 (1984), p. 553-557, TG 132, fig. 16; Pernicka, E. “Erzlagerstätten in der Ägäis und ihre Ausbeutung im Altertum: Geochemische Untersuchungen zur Herkunftsbestimmung archäologischer Metallobjekte”, JbRGZM 34.2 (1987), p. 675-676.

11. Островерхов, A. С. “Про чорну металлургию на Ягорлицькому поселенни”, Археологiя (Kиев), p. 26-36; Островерхов, A. С. “К вопросу о сырьевой базе античного производства в районе Днепровского и Бугского лиманов ”, ВДИ 3 (1979), p. 118.

12. Островерхов, A. С. “К вопросу о сырьевой базе античного производства в районе Днепровского и Бугского лиманов ”, ВДИ 3 (1979), p. 118-123.

13. Шрамко, Б. A. – Солнцев, Л. A. – Фомин, Л. Л. “К вопросу о железодобывающем ремесле в степной Скифии ”, СА 2 (1986), p. 156-169.

14. Терехова, Н. Н. – Хомутова, Л. С. “Результаты минералогического изучения образцов железных руд и шлаков из раскопок Торика ”, in Н. А. Онайко (ed.), Архаический Торик. Античный город на северо-востоке Понта (Москва 1980), p. 172-173.

15. Марченко, И. Д. “К изучению металлообработки в раннем Пантикапее ”, in Памятники культуры. Новые открытия. Ежегодник (Москва 1978), p. 453-457.

16. Круг, О. Ю. – Рындина, Н. В. “К вопросу о железной металлургии Пантикапея ”, МИА 103 (1962), 254-258; Treister, M. “Metalworking of Panticapaion, Kingdom of Bosporus Capital”, Bulletin of the Metals Museum 12 (1987), p. 49.

17. Rozanova, L. S. – Terekhova, N. N. “Iron-Working in Classical Sites of the North Pontic Area (According to the Materials from Gorgippia)”, in International Conference ‘Archaeometallurgy in Europe’, 24-26 September 2003 - Milan, Italy. Proceedings. Vol. 1 (Milan 2003) p. 64-65.

18. Черных, Е. Н. Горное дело и металлургия в древнейшей Болгарии (София 1978), p. 53-82; Ольговский, С. Я. “Спектральний аналiз мiдних та бронзових виробiв iз Ягорлицького поселення”, Археологiя (Kиïв) 36 (1981), p. 40.

19. Крапивина, В. В. – Маничев, В. И. – Крутилов, В. В. “О металлургическом производстве в Ольвии (цветные металлы), in Н. O. Гаврилюк (ed.), Палеоекономiка раннього залiзного вiку на територiï Укрaïни (Kиïв 2004), p. 70-85.

20. Ольговский, С. Я. “Металл литых монет Нижнего Побужья”, in А. С. Русяева (ed.), Ольвия и ее округа (Киев 1986) p. 90; Смекалова, Т. Н. – Дюков, Ю. Л. Монетные сплавы государств Северного Причерноморья. Боспор, Ольвия, Тира (Ст. Петербург 2001) p. 106-107, 113, 121-122.

21. Domanskij, J. V. – Marchenko, K. K. “Towards Determening the Chief Function of the Settlement of Borysthenes”, in P. G. Bilde – J. M. Højte – V. F. Stolba (eds.), The Cauldron of Ariantas. Studies presented to A. N. Ščeglov on the occasion of his 70th Birthday (Black Sea Studies 1, Aarchus 2003) p. 35; Доманский, Я. В. – Марченко, К. К. “Базовая функция раннего Борисфена”, in С. Д. Крыжицкий (ed.), Borysthenika – 2004. Материалы международной научной конференции к 100-летию начла исследований острова Березань З. Р. фон Штерном (Николаев 2004) p. 28.

22. Смекалова, Т. Н. – Дюков, Ю. Л. Монетные сплавы государств Северного Причерноморья. Боспор, Ольвия, Тира (Ст. Петербург 2001) p. 113-114, 122-123.

23. Смекалова, Т. Н. – Дюков, Ю. Л. Монетные сплавы государств Северного Причерноморья. Боспор, Ольвия, Тира (Ст. Петербург 2001) p. 113, 120.

24. Pernicka, E. – Seeliger, Th. – Wagner, G. A. et al. “Archäometallurgische Untersuchungen in Nordwestanatolien”, JbRGZM 31 (1984), p. 539-549, TG 18; Смекалова, Т. Н. – Дюков, Ю. Л. Монетные сплавы государств Северного Причерноморья. Боспор, Ольвия, Тира (Ст. Петербург 2001) p. 123-124.

25. Смекалова, Т. Н. – Дюков, Ю. Л. Монетные сплавы государств Северного Причерноморья. Боспор, Ольвия, Тира (Ст. Петербург 2001) p. 124-137.

26. Смекалова, Т. Н. – Дюков, Ю. Л. Монетные сплавы государств Северного Причерноморья. Боспор, Ольвия, Тира (Ст. Петербург 2001) p. 21.

27. Смекалова, Т. Н. – Дюков, Ю. Л. Монетные сплавы государств Северного Причерноморья. Боспор, Ольвия, Тира (Ст. Петербург 2001) p. 22-23.

28. Секерская, Н. М. Античный Никоний и его округа в VI-IV вв. до н.э. (Киев 1989) p. 35; Treister, M. “Ionia and the North Pontic Area. Archaic Metalworking: Tradition and Innovation”, in H. Heinen – G. Tsetskhladze (ed.), The Greek Colonisation of the Black Sea (Historical Interpretation of Archaeology), (Historia Einzelschriften 121, Stuttgart 1998) p. 180, note 4 with bibliography.

29. Охотников, С. Б. Нижнее Поднестровье в VI-V вв. до н.э. (Киев 1990) p. 49.

30. Treister, M. “Ionia and the North Pontic Area. Archaic Metalworking: Tradition and Innovation”, in H. Heinen – G. Tsetskhladze (eds.), The Greek Colonisation of the Black Sea (Historical Interpretation of Archaeology) (Historia Einzelschriften 121, Stuttgart 1998) p. 179, note 1 with bibliography.

31. Treister, M. “Ionia and the North Pontic Area. Archaic Metalworking: Tradition and Innovation”, in H. Heinen – G. Tsetskhladze (eds.), The Greek Colonisation of the Black Sea (Historical Interpretation of Archaeology) (Historia Einzelschriften 121, Stuttgart 1998) p. 179, note 1 with bibliography; Крыжицкий, С. Д. и др., Ольвия. Античное государство в Северном Причерноморье (Киев 1999) p. 61-62; 64, 67.

32. Treister, M. “Ionia and the North Pontic Area. Archaic Metalworking: Tradition and Innovation”, in H. Heinen – G. Tsetskhladze (eds.), The Greek Colonisation of the Black Sea (Historical Interpretation of Archaeology) (Historia Einzelschriften 121, Stuttgart 1998) p. 179, note 2 with bibliography.

33. Treister, M. “Ionia and the North Pontic Area. Archaic Metalworking: Tradition and Innovation”, in H. Heinen – G. Tsetskhladze (eds.), The Greek Colonisation of the Black Sea (Historical Interpretation of Archaeology) (Historia Einzelschriften 121, Stuttgart 1998) p. 179-180, note 3 with bibliography; Крыжицкий, С. Д. и др., Ольвия. Античное государство в Северном Причерноморье (Киев 1999) p. 63-64.

34. Personal communication with Y. A. Vinogradov.

35. Treister, M. “Ionia and the North Pontic Area. Archaic Metalworking: Tradition and Innovation”, in H. Heinen – G. Tsetskhladze (ed.), The Greek Colonisation of the Black Sea (Historical Interpretation of Archaeology) (Historia Einzelschriften 121, Stuttgart 1998) p. 180, note 6 with bibliography.

36. Долгоруков, В. С. “Литейная форма из Фанагории “, in Г. А. Кошеленко (ed.), Проблемы античной культуры (Москва 1986) p. 145-149.

37. Терехова, Н. Н. – Хомутова, Л. С. “Результаты минералогического изучения образцов железных руд и шлаков из раскопок Торика ”, in Н. А. Онайко, Архаический Торик. Античный город на северо-востоке Понта (Москва 1980) p. 172-173.

38. One can hardly adopt given the information we have the seasonal character of the metallurgical and metalworking on the Berezan and Yagorlyk settlements, as it is suggested by S. Ya. Ol’govskii: Ольговский, С. Я. Скифо-античная металлообработка архаического времени (Киев 2005) p. 86.

39. Островерхов, А. С. “Обробка кольорових металiв на античних поселеннях ”, Археологiя (Kиïв) 36 (1981), p. 26-37; Паньков, С. В. “Про технiко-технологiчне опорядження античного залiзодобувного та обробного вирбництва пiвнiчного Причорномор’я”, in C. Б. Буйских (ed.), Мир Ольвии. Памятник исследователю и исследование памятника. К 90-летию профессора Л. М. Славина (Киев 1996) p. 170; Ольговский, С. Я. Скифо-античная металлообработка архаического времени (Киев 2005) p. 69-73; Иевлев, М. М. – Минаева, Н. И., “К вопросу о выборе места и направленности хозяйственной деятельности Ягорлыцкого поселения”, in В. Н. Зинько (ed.), Боспор Киммерийским и варварский мир в период античности и средневековья. Οικος (Керчь 2006) p. 166-169.

40. Domanskij, J. V. – Marchenko, K. K. “Towards Determening the Chief Function of the Settlement of Borysthenes”, in P. G. Bilde – J. M. Højte – V. F. Stolba (eds.), The Cauldron of Ariantas. Studies presented to A. N. Ščeglov on the occasion of his 70th Birthday (Black Sea Studies 1, Aarchus 2003) p. 30-35, figs. 1-3; Доманский, Я. В. – Марченко, К. К. “Базовая функция раннего Борисфена”, in С. Д. Крыжицкий (ed.), Borysthenika – 2004. Материалы международной научной конференции к 100-летию начла исследований острова Березань З. Р. фон Штерном (Николаев 2004) p. 24-27.

41. Domanskij, J. V. – Marchenko, K. K. “Towards Determening the Chief Function of the Settlement of Borysthenes”, in P. G. Bilde – J. M. Højte – V. F. Stolba (eds.), The Cauldron of Ariantas. Studies presented to A. N. Ščeglov on the occasion of his 70th Birthday (Black Sea Studies 1, Aarchus 2003) p. 35; Доманский, Я. В. – Марченко, К. К. “Базовая функция раннего Борисфена”, in С. Д. Крыжицкий (ed.), Borysthenika – 2004. Материалы международной научной конференции к 100-летию начла исследований острова Березань З. Р. фон Штерном (Николаев 2004) p. 28.

42. Шелов, Д. Б. “Железоделательное производство в Северном Причерноморье в античное время”, КСИА 159 (1979) p. 5; Паньков, С. В. “Про технiко-технологiчне опорядження античного залiзодобувного та обробного вирбництва пiвнiчного Причорномор’я”, in C. Б. Буйских (ed.), Мир Ольвии. Памятник исследователю и исследование памятника. К 90-летию профессора Л. М. Славина (Киев 1996) p. 169.

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61. Денисова, В. И. “Литейная форма мастера Гикесия из Ольвии”. Археологические вести 3 (1994), p. 78-87; Treister, M. “Archaic Pantikapaion”, in: J. Cobet – V. von Graeve – W.-D.Niemeyer – K. Zimmermann (eds.), Frühes Ionien: Eine Bestandaufnahme. Panionion, 26. September – 1.Oktober 1999 (Milesische Forschungen 5, Mainz 2007) p. 570, fig. 3.

62. Treister, M. “Аrchaic Bronzes. Greece – Asia Minor – North Pontic Area”, in S. L. Solovyov (ed.), Archaic Greek Culture: History, Archaeology, Art and Museology (British Archaeological Reports) (Oxford in print). – On Olbian mirrors see: Treister, M. Ein spätarchaischer Handspiegel des olbischen Typus (Festgabe anlässlich der Winckelmannsfeier des Institut für klassische Archäologie der Universität Leipzig, Leipzig am 15. Dezember 2003).

63. Капошина, С. И. “О скифских элементах в культуре Ольвии ”, МИА 50 (1956) p. 183-185, fig. 23, 1-4, 6-7; Kołkówna, S. “Antike Werkzeuge zur Produktion metallener Juweliererzeugnisse aus der nördlichen und westlichen Schwarzmeerküste”, Archeologia (Warszawa) XXIX (1978), p. 64-65, no. 17 with bibliography, fig. 18; Kołkówna, S. “Remarques sur les sources archéologiques antiques relatives а la production d'orfèvrerie sur les rivages septentrionaux et occident de la Mer Noire”, in T. Hackens (ed.), Études sur l'orfèvrerie antique. Studies in Ancient Jewelry (Publication d'histoire de l'art et d'archéologie de l'Universite Catholique de Louvain XIV. Aurifex 1, Louvain-la-Neuve 1980) p. 114, pls. VII, 1; VIII; Островерхов, А. С. “Звiриний стиль у культурi Ольвiï”, Археологiя (Киïв) 2 (1994), p. 44, fig. 3, 3 ; Vinogradov, Ju. G. – Kryžickij, S. D. Olbia. Eine altgriechische Stadt im nordwestlichen Schwarzmeerraum (Leiden – New York – Köln 1995) p. 79, fig. 100, 1.

64. Berciu, D. “Das thrako-gethische Fürstengrab von Agighiol in Rumänien”, BerRGK 50 (1969), p. 242, fig. 13, 2; Kull, B. “Die Siedlung Oprişor bei Turnu Severin (Rumänien) und ihre Bedeutung für die thrakische Toreutik”, Germania 75 (1997), p. 578-580, fig. 15, 2; Treister, M. Hammering Techniques in Greek and Roman Jewellery and Toreutics (Colloquia Pontica 8, (Leiden – Boston – Köln 2001) p. 79, no. 9 (with bibliography), fig. 39, 2.

65. Solovyov, S. – Treister, M. “Bronze punches from Berezan”, AWE 3 (2004) p. 365-375.

66. Solovyov, S. – Treister, M. “Bronze punches from Berezan”, AWE 3 (2004) p. 370-371.

67. Kull, B. “Die Siedlung Oprişor bei Turnu Severin (Rumänien) und ihre Bedeutung für die thrakische Toreutik”, Germania 75 (1997), p. 583.

68. Ognenova, L. “Nouvelles données sur les artisanats en Thrace dans l’antiquité, in Acta Conventus XI “Eirene” (1973), p. 485-492.

69. Секерская, Н. М. Античный Никоний и его округа в VI-IV вв. до н.э. (Киев 1989) p. 66, fig. 55, 1-3, 6-8, Зубарь, В. М. – Сон, Н. А. Северо-западное Причерноморье в античную эпоху. Основные тенденции социально-экономического развития (Materials in Archaeology, History and Ethnography of Tauria Supplementum 3, Симферополь 2007) p. 79, fig. 92.

70. Vinogradov, Ju. G. – Kryžickij, S. D. Olbia. Eine altgriechische Stadt im nordwestlichen Schwarzmeerraum (Leiden – New York – Köln 1995) p. 80; Крыжицкий, С. Д. и др., Ольвия. Античное государство в Северном Причерноморье (Киев 1999) p. 125-126; Крапивина, В. В. – Маничев, В. И. – Крутилов, В. В. “О металлургическом производстве в Ольвии (цветные металлы)", in Н. O. Гаврилюк (ed.), Палеоекономiка раннього залiзного вiку на територiï Укрaïни (Kиïв 2004) p. 66. Крапивина, В. В. “Металлообрабатывающая мастерская в Ольвии и ее связь со святилищем Афродиты”, in В. Н. Зинько (ed.), Боспор Киммерийский и варварский мир в период античности и средневековья. Святилища и сакральные объекты (Керчь 2007) p. 188-194.

71. Крапивина, В. В. “Металлообрабатывающая мастерская в Ольвии и ее связь со святилищем Афродиты”, in В. Н. Зинько (ed.), Боспор Киммерийский и варварский мир в период античности и средневековья. Святилища и сакральные объекты (Керчь 2007) p. 188-194.

72. Treister, M. “Metalworking of Panticapaion, Kingdom of Bosporus Capital”, Bulletin of the Metals Museum 12 (1987), p. 44-46, figs.11-12.

73. Treister, M. “Metalworking of Panticapaion, Kingdom of Bosporus Capital”, Bulletin of the Metals Museum 12 (1987), p. 44, fig. 9;

74. Трейстер, М. Ю. “Бронзолитейное ремесло Боспора”,  Сообщения ГМИИ им. А. С. Пушкина 10 (1992) p. 85.

75. Зинько, В. Н. Хора боспорского города Нимфея (Боспорские исследования IV, Симферополь – Керчь 2003) pp. 94-100; Зинько, В. Н. Хора городов европейского побережья Боспора Киммерийского (VI-I вв. до н.э.) (Боспорские исследования XV, Симферополь – Керчь 2007) p. 211, 212, fig. 93.

76. Фурманська, А. I. “Ливарнi форми з розкопок Ольвiï”, Археологични пам’ятки УРСР VII (Киев 1958), p. 52-53, pl. VI, 4-5; Kołkówna, S. “Remarques sur les sources archéologiques antiques relatives а la production d'orfèvrerie sur les rivages septentrionaux et occident de la Mer Noire”, in T. Hackens (ed.), Études sur l'orfèvrerie antique.  Studies in Ancient Jewelry (Publication d'histoire  de l'art et  d'archéologie de l'Universite Catholique de  Louvain XIV. Aurifex 1), (Louvain-la-Neuve 1980) p. 138-139, pl. XV, 4-5. See also: Крыжицкий, С. Д. и др., Ольвия. Античное государство в Северном Причерноморье (Киев 1999) p. 127. Калашник, Ю. П. “Золото Боспора ”, in Д. Вильямс – Д. Огден (eds.), Греческое золото. Ювелирное искусство классической эпохи V- IV века до н.э. (Ст. Петербург 1995) p. 260, fig. 1.

77. Mould for spiral-shaped pendants: Coja, M. “L’artisanat a Histria du VIe au Ier siecle avant notre ere”, Dacia 6 (1962), p. 139, fig. 12, 3; Kolkowna, S. “Remarques sur les sources archeologiques antiques relatives ? la production d'orfevrerie sur les rivages septentrionaux et occident de la Mer Noire”, in T. Hackens (ed.), Etudes sur l'orfevrerie antique.  Studies in Ancient Jewelry (Publication d'histoire  de l'art et  d'archeologie de l'Universite Catholique de  Louvain XIV. Aurifex 1, Louvain-la-Neuve 1980) p. 144-145, pl. XIX, 3. – Mould for lyra-shaped penfants: Coja, M. “L’artisanat a Histria du VIe au Ier siecle avant notre ere”, Dacia 6 (1962), p. 132, fig. 12, 2; Kolkowna, S. “Remarques sur les sources archeologiques antiques relatives ? la production d'orfevrerie sur les rivages septentrionaux et occident de la Mer Noire”, in T. Hackens (ed.), Etudes sur l'orfevrerie antique.  Studies in Ancient Jewelry (Publication d'histoire  de l'art et  d'archeologie de l'Universite Catholique de  Louvain XIV. Aurifex 1, Louvain-la-Neuve 1980) p. 144-145, pl. XIX, Редина, Е. Ф. “О месте производства некоторых типов украшений из скифских могильников”, in И. В. Станко (ed.), Древнее Причерноморье. IV-e чтения памяти профессора Петра Осиповича Карышковского (Одесса 1998) p. 125-126, fig. 1, 1.

78. Секерская, Н. М. Античный Никоний и его округа в VI-IV вв. до н.э. (Киев 1989) 66, fig. 55, 6; Редина, Е. Ф. “О месте производства некоторых типов украшений из скифских могильников”, in И. В. Станко (ed.), Древнее Причерноморье. IV-e чтения памяти профессора Петра Осиповича Карышковского (Одесса 1998) p. 125-126, fig. 1, 2; Зубарь, В. М., Сон, Н. А. Северо-западное Причерноморье в античную эпоху. Основные тенденции социально-экономического развития (Materials in Archaeology, History and Ethnography of Tauria Supplementum 3), (Симферополь 2007), p. 79, fig. 92, 3.

79. Силантьева, П. Ф. “Спиралевидные подвески Боспора ”, Труды ГЭ XVII (1976), p. 133-134, fig. 8; Трейстер, М. Ю. “Бронзолитейное ремесло Боспора VI – V вв. до н.э.“, Eirene XXV (1988), fig. 3, 4-5; Трейстер, М. Ю. “Бронзолитейное ремесло Боспора”,  Сообщения ГМИИ им. А. С. Пушкина 10 (1992) p. 75, fig. 5, 4-5; Калашник, Ю. П. “Золото Боспора ”, in Д. Вильямс – Д. Огден, Греческое золото. Ювелирное искусство классической эпохи V- IV века до н.э. (Ст. Петербург 1995) p. 260-261, figs. 2-3.

80. Левина, Е. А. – Островерхов, А. С. – Редина, Е. Ф. “О производстве изделий взвериномстиленатерритории ольвийского полиса”, in В. П. Ванчугов (ed.), Древности причерноморских степей (Киев 1993) p. 88-90, figs. 2, 1; 3, 1-3 (published as a casting mould); Островерхов, А. С. “Звiриний стиль у культурi Ольвiï”, Археологiя (Киïв) 2 (1994), p. 65-67, fig. 4, 3; Treister, M. “Ionia and the North Pontic Area. Archaic Metalworking: Tradition and Innovation”, in H. Heinen – G. Tsetskhladze (eds.), The Greek Colonisation of the Black Sea (Historical Interpretation of Archaeology) (Historia Einzelschriften 121, Stuttgart 1998) p.183-184, 196, fig. 9; Treister, M. Hammering Techniques in Greek and Roman Jewellery and Toreutics (Colloquia Pontica 8, Leiden – Boston – Köln 2001) p. 132-133, fig. 43.

81. Сон, Н. А. “Ремесленное производство”, in С. Д. Крыжицкий (ed.), Культура населения Ольвии и ее округи в архаическое время (Киев 1987) p. 120-121, No. 2, fig. 41, 4;  Левина, Е. А. –Островерхов, А. С. – Редина, Е. Ф. “О производстве изделий в зверином стиле на территории ольвийского полиса”, in В. П. Ванчугов (ed.), Древности причерноморских степей (Киев 1993) p. 88-90, fig. 3, 7; Островерхов, А. С. “Звiриний стиль у культурi Ольвiï”, Археологiя (Киïв) 2 (1994), p. 65-66, fig. 4, 1; Treister, M. “Ionia and the North Pontic Area. Archaic Metalworking: Tradition and Innovation”, in H. Heinen – G. Tsetskhladze (ed.), The Greek Colonisation of the Black Sea (Historical Interpretation of Archaeology) (Historia Einzelschriften 121, Stuttgart 1998) p. 183, 195, figs. 7-8.

82. Fedoseev, N.F. “A Matrix with a Griffin from Nympheus”, ACSS 4.1 (1997), p. 1-4; M.Y. Treister, Vickers, M. “Stone Matrices with Griffins from Nymphaeum and  Euesperides”, in G. R. Tsetskladze (ed.), New Studies on the Black Sea Littoral (Colloquia Pontica 1, Oxford 1996) p. 135-137, fig. 1; Treister, M. Hammering Techniques in Greek and Roman Jewellery and Toreutics (Colloquia Pontica 8, Leiden – Boston – Köln 2001) p. 133-134, figs. 44-45.

83. Katincharova-Bogdanova, D. “Traces of Metallurgical Activity in the Emporium”, in J. Bouzek –M.Domaradzki – Z. H. Archibald (eds.), Pistiros I. Excavations and Studies (Prague 1996) p. 103-105, fig. 8.2: 1-2.

84. Katincharova-Bogdanova, D. “Traces of Metallurgical Activity in the Emporium”, in J. Bouzek – M. Domaradzki  – Z. H. Archibald (eds.), Pistiros I. Excavations and Studies (Prague 1996) p. 103-105, fig. 8.2: 3-4; Tonkova, M. “Les ateliers d’orfèvres de luxe en Thrace: mêthodes de localisation”, ΤΟΠΟΙ 8.2 (1998), p. 750.

85. Treister, M. Hammering Techniques in Greek and Roman Jewellery and Toreutics (Colloquia Pontica 8, Leiden – Boston – Köln 2001) p. 172, Nos. 6-7.

86. Archibald, Z. H. “The Odryssian River Port near Vetren, Bulgaria, and the Pistiros Inscription”, Talanta XXXII-XXXIII (2000-2001), p. 265 with bibliography.

87. Самойлова, T. И. Тира в VI–I вв. до н.э. (Киев 1988) p. 44, fig. 16, 2-3; Зубарь, В. М. – Сон, Н. А. Северо-западное Причерноморье в античную эпоху. Основные тенденции социально-экономического развития (Materials in Archaeology, History and Ethnography of Tauria Supplementum 3, Симферополь 2007) p. 122, fig. 143, 2-3.

88. Vinogradov, Ju. G. – Kryžickij, S. D. Olbia. Eine altgriechische Stadt im nordwestlichen Schwarzmeerraum (Leiden – New York – Köln 1995) p. 80; Крыжицкий, С. Д. и др., Ольвия. Античное государство в Северном Причерноморье (Киев 1999) p. 206; Крапивина, В. В. – Маничев, В. И. – Крутилов, В. В. “О металлургическом производстве в Ольвии (цветные металлы), in Н. O. Гаврилюк (ed.), Палеоекономiка раннього залiзного вiку на територiï Укрaïни (Kиïв 2004) p. 66.

89. Kołkówna, S. “Remarques sur les sources archéologiques antiques relatives а la production d'orfèvrerie sur les rivages septentrionaux et occident de la Mer Noire”, in T. Hackens (ed.), Études sur l'orfèvrerie antique. Studies in Ancient Jewelry (Publication d'histoire de l'art et d'archéologie de l'Universite Catholique de Louvain XIV. Aurifex 1, Louvain-la-Neuve 1980) p. 150, pl. XXIV, 1; Трейстер, М. Ю. “Бронзолитейное ремесло Боспора”, Сообщения ГМИИ им. А. С. Пушкина 10 (1992) p. 87, 103, note 111 with bibliography.

90. Алексеева, E. M. “Анапа. Динамика развития центральной части античного города (VI в. до н.э. – III в. н.э.)”, Древности Боспора 6 (2003), 23, 35, fig. 8.

91. Pirtskhalava, M. – Kipiani, G. “The Excavations of the Western Part of Central Terrace of Vani Fortified Settlement”, in O. D. Lordkipanidze (ed.), Vani VIII (Tbilisi 1986), p. 61-63, pls. 43-46; Lordkipanidze, O. Archäologie in Georgien. Von der Altsteinzeit zum Mittelalter. Quellen und Forschungen zur prähistorischen und provinzialrömischen Archäologie 5 (Weinheim 1991), p. 189-193, pls. 15-16.

92. Трейстер, M. “Материалы к корпусу постаментов бронзовых статуй Северного Причерноморья”, Херсонесский сборник 10 (1999) p. 136-138, Nos. 17-21; Treister, M. “Large Scale Bronzes and their Installation in North Pontic Area”, in C. Mattusch – A.Brauer – S. E. Knudsen (eds.), From the Parts to the Whole. Vol. 2. Acts of the 13th International Bronze Congress, held at Cambridge, Mass., May 28-June 1, 1996 (Journal of Roman Archaeology, Suppl. Series 39, Portsmouth, Rhode Island 2002), p. 162, fig. 1a,2; p. 165.

93. See, e.g.: Кадеев, В. И. Очерки истории экономики Херсонеса в I – IV веках н.э. (Харьков 1970) p. 27; Крапивина, В. В. – Маничев, В. И. – Крутилов, В. В. “О металлургическом производстве в Ольвии (цветные металлы), in Н. O. Гаврилюк (ed.), Палеоекономiка раннього залiзного вiку на територiï Укрaïни (Kиïв 2004) p. 86.

94. Зубарь, В. М. – Сон, Н. А. Северо-западное Причерноморье в античную эпоху. Основные тенденции социально-экономического развития (Materials in Archaeology, History and Ethnography of Tauria Supplementum 3, Симферополь 2007) p. 109.

95. Крыжицкий, С. Д. и др., Ольвия. Античное государство в Северном Причерноморье (Киев 1999) p. 206-207; Зубарь, В. М. – Сон, Н. А. Северо-западное Причерноморье в античную эпоху. Основные тенденции социально-экономического развития (Materials in Archaeology, History and Ethnography of Tauria Supplementum 3, Симферополь 2007) p. 109, fig. 129.

96. Фурманська, А. I. “Ливарнi форми з розкопок Ольвiï”, Археологични пам’ятки УРСР VII (Киев 1958), p. 49-51, pls. III, 2; V, 1-5; Лейпунська, Н. O. “Ливарнi форм з Ольвiï”, Археологiя (Kиïв) 45 (1984), p. 68 ff., Nos. 1-5, figs. 1-5; Kołkówna, S. “Antike Werkzeuge zur Produktion metallener Juweliererzeugnisse aus der nördlichen und westlichen Schwarzmeerküste”, Archeologia (Warszawa) XXIX (1978), p. 75 ff. Nos. 66-73, figs. 66; 68-71; Kołkówna, S. “Remarques sur les sources archéologiques antiques relatives а la production d'orfèvrerie sur les rivages septentrionaux et occident de la Mer Noire”, in T. Hackens (ed.), Études sur l'orfèvrerie antique. Studies in Ancient Jewelry (Publication d'histoire de l'art et d'archéologie de l'Universite Catholique de Louvain XIV. Aurifex 1, Louvain-la-Neuve 1980) p. 115 ff.; 134-136, pls. XII, 1. 3-5; XIII, 1.

97. From the excavations by B. V. Farmakovskii, 1926: Фурманська, А. I. “Ливарнi форми з розкопок Ольвiï”, Археологични пам’ятки УРСР VII (Киев 1958), p. 47, pls. III, 4; Kołkówna, S. “Antike Werkzeuge zur Produktion metallener Juweliererzeugnisse aus der nördlichen und westlichen Schwarzmeerküste”, Archeologia (Warszawa) XXIX (1978), p. 69-70, No. 34, fig. 36; Kołkówna, S. “Remarques sur les sources archéologiques antiques relatives а la production d'orfèvrerie sur les rivages septentrionaux et occident de la Mer Noire”, in T. Hackens (ed.), Études sur l'orfèvrerie antique. Studies in Ancient Jewelry (Publication d'histoire de l'art et d'archéologie de l'Universite Catholique de Louvain XIV. Aurifex 1, Louvain-la-Neuve 1980) p. 116; 132-133, pl. XI, 1.– From the excavations of room Е-20, 1973: Лейпунська, Н. O. “Ливарнi форм з Ольвiï”, Археологiя (Kиïв) 45 (1984), p. 68; Vinogradov, Ju. G. – Kryžickij, S. D. Olbia. Eine altgriechische Stadt im nordwestlichen Schwarzmeerraum (Leiden – New York – Köln 1995) fig. 74 (an off-print, mistakenly published as a bronze ornament from Olbia).

98. Кадеев, В. И. Очерки истории экономики Херсонеса в I – IV веках н.э. (Харьков 1970) p. 49; Kołkówna, S. “Antike Werkzeuge zur Produktion metallener Juweliererzeugnisse aus der nördlichen und westlichen Schwarzmeerküste”, Archeologia (Warszawa) XXIX (1978), p. 77, No. 74, fig. 72; Kołkówna, S. “Remarques sur les sources archéologiques antiques relatives а la production d'orfèvrerie sur les rivages septentrionaux et occident de la Mer Noire”, in T. Hackens (ed.), Études sur l'orfèvrerie antique. Studies in Ancient Jewelry (Publication d'histoire de l'art et d'archéologie de l'Universite Catholique de Louvain XIV. Aurifex 1, Louvain-la-Neuve 1980) p. 116; 134 f., pl. XII, 6.

99. Treister, M. “Metalworking of Panticapaion, Kingdom of Bosporus Capital”, Bulletin of the Metals Museum 12 (1987), p. 43, fig. 8; Трейстер, М. Ю. “Бронзолитейное ремесло Боспора”,  Сообщения ГМИИ им. А. С. Пушкина 10 (1992) p. 78-79, fig. 7; p. 83.

100. Пругло, В. И. “Литейная форма из Мирмекия “, КСИА 103 (1965), p. 104-107; Kołkówna, S. “Remarques sur les sources archéologiques antiques relatives а la production d'orfèvrerie sur les rivages septentrionaux et occident de la Mer Noire”, in T. Hackens (ed.), Études sur l'orfèvrerie antique. Studies in Ancient Jewelry (Publication d'histoire de l'art et d'archéologie de l'Universite Catholique de Louvain XIV. Aurifex 1, Louvain-la-Neuve 1980) p. 142-143, pl. XVIII, 4-6.

101. Марченко, И. Д. “Две литейные формы из Фанагории”, МИА 57 (1956), p. 161-162, figs. 1-2; Kołkówna, S. “Remarques sur les sources archéologiques antiques relatives а la production d'orfèvrerie sur les rivages septentrionaux et occident de la Mer Noire”, in T. Hackens (ed.), Études sur l'orfèvrerie antique. Studies in Ancient Jewelry (Publication d'histoire de l'art et d'archéologie de l'Universite Catholique de Louvain XIV. Aurifex 1, Louvain-la-Neuve 1980) p. 136, pl. XIII, 2 ; 142-143, pl. XVIII, 7.

102. Шелов, Д. Б. Некрополь Танаиса (МИА 101, 1961), pl. XXXII, 8; Шелов, Д. Б. Танаис и нижний Дон в III – I вв. до н.э. (Москва 1970), p. 183-184; Kołkówna, S. “Antike Werkzeuge zur Produktion metallener Juweliererzeugnisse aus der nördlichen und westlichen Schwarzmeerküste”, Archeologia (Warszawa) XXIX (1978), p. 77, No. 75, fig. 73; Kołkówna, S. “Remarques sur les sources archéologiques antiques relatives а la production d'orfèvrerie sur les rivages septentrionaux et occident de la Mer Noire”, in T. Hackens (ed.), Études sur l'orfèvrerie antique. Studies in Ancient Jewelry (Publication d'histoire de l'art et d'archéologie de l'Universite Catholique de Louvain XIV. Aurifex 1, Louvain-la-Neuve 1980) p. 116; 148, pl. XXII,1-2; Трейстер, М. Ю. “Бронзолитейное ремесло Боспора”, Сообщения ГМИИ им. А. С. Пушкина 10 (1992) p. 86-87.

103. Tonkova, M. “Traces des ateliers d’orfèvres en Bulgarie du Nord-Est”, in D. Gergova (ed.), Helis III (Sofia 1994) p. 175, 181, 191, note 7.

104. Гайдукевич, В. Ф.  “Находка античного бронзового штампа в Тиритаке”, СА VI (1940), p. 298-306;  Gajdukevič, V. F. Das Bosporanische Reich (Berlin 1971) p. 131, fig. 20; Kołkówna, S. “Antike Werkzeuge zur Produktion metallener Juweliererzeugnisse aus der nördlichen und westlichen Schwarzmeerküste”, Archeologia (Warszawa) XXIX (1978), p. 62, No. 9, fig. 10; Kołkówna, S. “Remarques sur les sources archéologiques antiques relatives а la production d'orfèvrerie sur les rivages septentrionaux et occident de la Mer Noire”, in T. Hackens (ed.), Études sur l'orfèvrerie antique.  Studies in Ancient Jewellery (Publication d'histoire  de l'art et  d'archéologie de l'Universite Catholique de  Louvain XIV. Aurifex 1, Louvainla-Neuve 1980) p. 112-114; Kull, B. “Die Siedlung Oprişor bei Turnu Severin (Rumänien) und ihre Bedeutung für die thrakische Toreutik”, Germania 75 (1997), p. 580, fig. 15, 11; 582; Treister, M. Hammering Techniques in Greek and Roman Jewellery and Toreutics (Colloquia Pontica 8, Leiden – Boston – Köln 2001) p. 173, No. 8, fig. 39, 11.

105. Марченко, И. Д. “Материалы по металлообработке и металлургии Пантикапея ”, МИА 56 (1957), p. 163, figs. 2, 7-8; Никулин, В.  “К вопросу о наличии на Боспоре центра по штамповке изделий из золота и серебра”, in М. Ф. Болтенко – А. Л. Есипова – А. Н. Мелихов (eds.), Материалы по археологии Северного Причерноморья 1 (Одесса 1957) 85-90, pl. 1; Kołkówna, S. “Antike Werkzeuge zur Produktion metallener Juweliererzeugnisse aus der nördlichen und westlichen Schwarzmeerküste”, Archeologia (Warszawa) XXIX (1978), p. 60-62, Nos. 1-4, figs. 1, 5-7; Kołkówna, S. “Remarques sur les sources archéologiques antiques relatives а la production d'orfèvrerie sur les rivages septentrionaux et occident de la Mer Noire”, in T. Hackens (ed.), Études sur l'orfèvrerie antique.  Studies in Ancient Jewellery (Publication d'histoire  de l'art et  d'archéologie de l'Universite Catholique de  Louvain XIV. Aurifex 1, Louvain-la-Neuve 1980) p. 122-123, pl. II; Kull, B. “Die Siedlung Oprişor bei Turnu Severin (Rumänien) und ihre Bedeutung für die thrakische Toreutik”, Germania 75 (1997), p. 580, fig. 15, 3-4, 8-9; 582; Treister, M. Hammering Techniques in Greek and Roman Jewellery and Toreutics (Colloquia Pontica 8, Leiden – Boston – Köln 2001) p. 173, Nos. 9-12, fig. 39, 3-4, 8-9. 

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107. Кадеев, В. И. Очерки истории экономики Херсонеса в I – IV веках н.э. (Харьков 1970) p. 49; Kołkówna, S. “Remarques sur les sources archéologiques antiques relatives а la production d'orfèvrerie sur les rivages septentrionaux et occident de la Mer Noire”, in T. Hackens (ed.), Études sur l'orfèvrerie antique. Studies in Ancient Jewelry (Publication d'histoire de l'art et d'archéologie de l'Universite Catholique de Louvain XIV. Aurifex 1. Louvain-la-Neuve 1980) p. 146, pl. XX.

108. Treister, M. “A  Matrix  from  Pantikapaeum”,  JWalt 48 (1990), p. 29-35; Treister, M. Hammering Techniques in Greek and Roman Jewellery and Toreutics (Colloquia Pontica 8, Leiden – Boston – Köln 2001) p. 248-252, fig. 82.

109. Фомiн, Л. Д. “Технiка обробки залiза в Ольвiï i Тiрi”, Археологiя (Киïв) 13 (1974), p. 26-27; Шелов, Д. Б. “Железоделательное производство в Северном Причерноморье в античное время”, КСИА 159 (1979), p. 6; Сон, Н. A. Тира римского времени (Киев 1993) p. 68-69; Паньков, С. В. “Про технiко-технологiчне опорядження античного залiзодобувного та обробного вирбництва пiвнiчного Причорномор’я”, in C. Б. Буйских (ed.), Мир Ольвии. Памятник исследователю и исследование памятника. К 90-летию профессора Л. М. Славина (Киев 1996) p. 170; Зубарь, В. М. – Сон, Н. А. Северо-западное Причерноморье в античную эпоху. Основные тенденции социально-экономического развития (Materials in Archaeology, History and Ethnography of Tauria Supplementum 3, Симферополь 2007) p. 195.

110. Крыжицкий, С. Д. и др., Ольвия. Античное государство в Северном Причерноморье (Киев 1999) p. 274-275, fig. 89; Крапивина, В. В. – Маничев, В. И. – Крутилов, В. В. “О металлургическом производстве в Ольвии (цветные металлы), in Н. O. Гаврилюк (ed.), Палеоекономiка раннього залiзного вiку на територiï Укрaïни (Kиïв 2004) p. 67; Зубарь, В. М. – Сон, Н. А. Северо-западное Причерноморье в античную эпоху. Основные тенденции социально-экономического развития (Materials in Archaeology, History and Ethnography of Tauria Supplementum 3, Симферополь 2007) p. 172-173.

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112. Крыжицкий, С. Д. и др., Ольвия. Античное государство в Северном Причерноморье (Киев 1999) p. 275.

113. Кадеев, В. И. Очерки истории экономики Херсонеса в I – IV веках н.э. (Харьков 1970) p. 27-28, 37, 39, 44, 48.

114. Кадеев, В. И. Очерки истории экономики Херсонеса в I – IV веках н.э. (Харьков 1970) p. 37, 48, 74.

115. Treister, M. “Metalworking of Panticapaion, Kingdom of Bosporus Capital”, Bulletin of the Metals Museum 12 (1987), p. 47, fig. 13; Трейстер, М. Ю. “Бронзолитейное ремесло Боспора”, Сообщения ГМИИ им. А. С. Пушкина 10 (1992) p. 85.

116. Виноградов, Ю. А. “Тигель из Илурата”, СА 2 (1983), p. 229-231.

117. Кругликова, И. Т. “Античная сельскохозяйственная усадьба близ Керчи ”, in В. Ф. Гайдукевич (ed.), Античная история и культура Северного Причерноморья (Москва – Ленинград 1968) p. 209, fig. 4.

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121. Minkova, M. – Jankov, D. “Traditions in bronze production in the territory of Augusta Traiana in Antiquity”, in C. Museteanu (ed.), Acts of the XVIth International Congress on Antique Bronzes, Bucharest, 26-31 May, 2003 (Bucharest 2004) p. 320, figs. 1-2.

122. Самойлова, T. И. Тира в VI–I вв. до н.э. (Киев 1988) p. 44, fig. 16, 1; cf. the attribution: Сон, Н. A. Тира римского времени (Киев 1993) p. 69-70; Зубарь, В. М. – Сон, Н. А. Северо-западное Причерноморье в античную эпоху. Основные тенденции социально-экономического развития (Materials in Archaeology, History and Ethnography of Tauria Supplementum 3, Симферополь 2007) p. 122, fig. 143, 1.

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127. Treister, M. – Zolotarev, M. “Moulds for Casting of Matrices for Roman Relief Mirrors from Chersonessus”, in J. Arce – F. Burkhalter (eds.), Bronces y religion romana. Actas del XI Convegno internacional de bronces antiguos, Madrid, Mayo-junio 1990 (Madrid 1993) p. 429-448.

128. Treister, M. “A Bronze Matrix from Chersonessus”, BayVgBl 55 (1990), p. 309-313; Treister, M. Hammering Techniques in Greek and Roman Jewellery and Toreutics (Colloquia Pontica 8, Leiden – Boston – Köln 2001) p. 355-361, fig. 120.

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